Global Policy Forum

By James A. Paul

The Gulf War, fought between Iraq and a military coalition led by the United States, lasted just forty–three days—from 17 January through 27 February 1991. Coalition forces launched the war in response to Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein's invasion and annexation of Kuwait on 2 August 1991.

The United States and Britain demanded Iraq's withdrawal, and they obtained a strong international consensus, reflected in a series of UN Security Council resolutions. Resolution 660, adopted unanimously within twenty–four hours of the invasion, called for the immediate and unconditional withdrawal of Iraqi forces. Resolution 661 of 6 August imposed severe economic sanctions against Iraq. And eventually, Resolution 678 of 29 November authorized the use of force against Iraq.

Although the United States obtained UN backing, it chose to act militarily and diplomatically with considerable autonomy. Claiming an imminent threat to the security of Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf oil–producing region, the U.S. administration of President George H.W. Bush rushed U.S. naval and ground units to the Gulf on 7 August, bypassing possible formation of a UN multinational force. Britain (and later, France) contributed contingents, as did Egypt, Syria, Saudi Arabia, and a number of other Gulf states; several other states in Europe and Asia contributed naval, medical, or other ancillary units; by the time hostilities were engaged, however, U.S. forces accounted for about three–quarters of the combat personnel and an even higher proportion of heavy weapons, aircraft, and naval ships.

In the months leading up to the military conflict, intense diplomatic activity—by UN Secretary General Pérez de Cuéllar, French President Mitterrand, Soviet President Gorbachev, and others—sought to obtain Iraq's withdrawal from Kuwait before a 15 January deadline specified in UN Resolution 678. Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein proposed to link his settlement of the crisis to the withdrawal of Israel from the territories it occupied. Amid mixed signals from Baghdad, efforts to find a diplomatic formula for Iraqi withdrawal were rejected by the United States and its allies, who affirmed that Iraqi withdrawal was not negotiable.

At an early stage, the United States moved toward a military resolution of the conflict. On 8 November, President Bush deployed 200,000 additional troops, moving the coalition forces from a defensive to an offensive posture. And on 18 November, U.S. officials stated that "neutralization" of Iraq's military and nuclear capacity had become objectives as well as Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait.

By the time hostilities broke out, the United States and its coalition partners had assembled more than 750,000 military personnel, 1,200 high–performance aircraft, 300 naval vessels including 8 aircraft carriers, and 1,800 tanks. Many of these forces and weapons, drawn from Western Europe, would not have been available had not the Cold War ended and the Soviet Union given its high–profile accord to the war plans of its former enemies.

In the combat theater, coalition forces faced approximately 400,000 Iraqi troops, armed with relatively advanced Western and Soviet arms acquired during the long and bloody Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988). The Iraqi army was not a particularly high–quality fighting force, however, and its strategic reserves were extremely weak compared to those of the United States and its coalition partners.

The coalition campaign began with a forty–day air war. Intense, round–the–clock bombing, destroying not only military targets but also much of Iraq's civilian infrastructure, including power plants and factories. The war ended with a brief and devastating four–day ground campaign. As Iraqi forces retreated, they were exposed to lethal air and ground attacks.

To obtain a cease–fire and armistice, Iraq was forced to agree to all relevant Security Council resolutions, including renunciation of all claims to Kuwait and agreement to pay heavy reparations for the damage done in Kuwait. Soon thereafter, the Bush administration announced that it was seeking to oust Saddam Hussein. The UN imposed stringent conditions on the lifting of sanctions, and Iraq refused to comply. There followed much additional suffering in Iraq because of abortive antigovernment uprisings and UN comprehensive economic sanctions that devastated the Iraqi economy.

The war was very costly. In addition to the great physical destruction suffered by Iraq and Kuwait, coalition direct expenses (including social aid packages) have been estimated at well over US$150 billion. The United States was unable and unwilling to bear more than a small share of these costs, so it obtained financing from various partners, especially Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. The Saudis' conservative estimate of their total war–related expenses was US$54 billion; Kuwait spent at least US$25 billion (and probably far more); Japan and Germany contributed about US$10–20 billion each; and Britain, France, and some small Gulf states accounted for most of the remainder of the outlays. According to some sources, after cash contributions from allies, the United States had no net expenses for the war and even may have run a surplus.

Though the war resulted in fewer than 500 casualties among coalition forces, Iraqi military casualties have been estimated at 50,000–100,000, while civilian casualties are thought to have reached at least 10,000, mostly due to the air war. In addition, casualties due to the civil war within Iraq are believed to have reached 50,000.

The crisis also led to massive displacement of people. At least half a million fled from Kuwait, including many foreign workers who lost homes, savings, and livelihood. Iraq also expelled 1–2 million Egyptians and other foreign workers; Saudi Arabia expelled as many as a million Yemeni workers because Yemen refused to support the coalition. And after the postwar Iraqi uprisings, approximately 2 million people were displaced. Altogether, 4–5 million people migrated within an eight–month period, one of the largest population movements in recent history.

The war had a very serious environmental impact. The Iraqis released large quantities of crude oil into the Persian Gulf, destroying fish and wildlife on a vast scale. They also set fire to most of the Kuwaiti oil wells before withdrawing from the emirate. Coalition bombing, which struck nuclear and chemical weapons installations, also caused serious environmental damage. Coalition bombing may also have contributed to the release of oil into the Persian Gulf, while the coalition air and ground campaign left lethal radioactive powder from depleted uranium shells in a wide area of military operations.

The coalition move toward war was opposed by a substantial segment of public opinion in most of the involved countries. In the United States, Congress was narrowly divided on the issue and antiwar demonstrations took place in many cities. In France, Defense Minister Jean–Pierre Cheví¨nement resigned. And in many countries throughout the world there were large and sometimes violent public protests. Once the war was under way, the U.S. government and most of its Western partners were able to rally domestic public support, thanks in part to careful management of mass media coverage, but broad worldwide opposition remained. Debate continues as to whether the war was necessary to accomplish Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait and why the United States went to war with a regime it had armed and supported until just before the crisis.

The war was the first major military conflict in the post–Cold War period. As such, the Soviet Union played only a secondary role in the crisis and in general tended to support the United States. The United States emerged from the war as the undisputed leader of the global political and military system.

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